A SHORT GLOSSARY AND EXPLANATION OF SOME CARTOGRAPHIC & PRINTING TERMS

THE MAIN PRINTING PROCESSES

Over the centuries there have been 3 main methods to prepare the 'plate' from which both text and images were printed

RELIEF (Wood engravings)

These involved using WOOD as the material on which the image to be printed was created.

The wood was cut away from the area which was NOT to be printed, leaving the image to be printed standing up from the 'block', as it was called. In many cases, notably by the Illustrated London News, Harpers, and the numerous similar publications throughout the world, several smaller blocks were made and then joined to form a single larger print.

For a more comprehensive study of the history and practice of Wood Engraving
CLICK HERE

INTAGLIO ( Copper and steel engravings)

Up to about 1830, COPPER was used. Then STEEL, which was more durable and enabled many more copies to be printed from the original 'plate'.

The image was cut INTO the metal, in 'reverse' or 'mirror' of the original drawing. This was done by using special engraving tools. ETCHINGS were created by using acid to burn away the metal.

LITHOGRAPHY ( Surface printing )

This process was invented at the end of the 18th century, but did not come into common use until the latter part of the 19th century, when the process was adapted to mechanisation. The design was drawn on to a flat STONE surface, using a greasy ink, which was then 'fixed' chemically.

CHROMO LITHO

This process was a form of lithograph which involved using many metal and stone plates. Each plate contained various different parts of the design executed with a range of coloured inks. These were printed in series to create an image with many tones, shades and textures.

COLOURING

The very earliest maps and engravings, by such a Sebastian MUNSTER, in the 16th Century, were never intended to be coloured.

It was not until the 17th Century, when the superb maps by BLAEU and others were individually coloured by hand at that time. The depth and splendour of some of the early colours was based on the preparation of pigments, some of which are not now available - a lost art.

ORIGINAL COLOUR

Maps and prints which were coloured at the time of printing. Some care must be taken when buying these, to ensure that no oxydization has taken place - Greens and browns in particular tend to 'burn' through the paper. You should always hold any item you are interested in up to the light, to check not just for any such 'burning', but also to see whether there are any defects, such as small worm holes, evidence of repairs, etc.

LATER COLOUR

Many antique maps or prints that were originally published uncoloured, have had modern colouring applied, or can be coloured to order. Normally a builder's 'size' will be applied to the surface of the print before colouring, to prevent the paint 'burning' the paper.

It is very much a matter of personal taste, as to whether you have any pieces coloured. The purists will argue that the map or engraving should be left in its original state. Others may prefer the added enjoyment of seeing their collection in attractive colours, particularly when the intention is to matt and frame them for display in the home or work place.

AUTHENTICATION

As ever, in the world of Antiques, your primary protection is the integrity, expertise and reputation of the Seller. My husband, before he retired, having spent many years in the map and print trade, he rarely encountered anything that approached a forgery. It is perhaps the feel of the paper, the crispness of the printed impression that distinguish the genuine article. Whenever possible, I provide a photocopy of the Title page of the Atlas or Book from which the map or print came.

Modern reproductions are of course on the market, but these are normally quite recognisable as such, indeed are so modern in appearance as to be readily distinguished from an original.

Restoration is another matter. So much antique furniture has been restored or 'married' over the years, that to find a piece in truly original condition is becoming quite rare. Some antique maps may have had minor repairs carried out to, say, a slightly torn fold. It is ALWAYS advisable to hold anything you are considering buying up to a bright light - this will quickly reveal any repairs or restoration that may have been carried out.

PAPER USED FOR ANTIQUE MAPS & PRINTS

When the potential fragility of maps is considered, it is remarkable that so many have survived in good condition for over three or four hundred years. We can but admire the quality of the hand-made paper on which they were produced and the splendid binding of the early 'Atlases'.

Apart from those manuscript maps and charts produced on vellum or parchment, most early maps which we are likely to find were printed on strong, thick hand-made paper from France, Germany and Switzerland and the finest of all in the Ancona area of Northern Italy.

In England, paper was made on a limited scale during the 16th century, but in general French paper was imported until about 1610, when good home produced handmade paper became available in quantity. Practically all such paper bore a watermark, which can be a useful guide in dating a map, although the evidence of such marks should be treated with caution. A batch of paper might be used for a limited number of prints over perhaps as long as 20 to 30 years, but considered in conjunction with other clues, a date of printing can sometimes be closely determined. The absence of a watermark in no way implies that a map is a fake nor does it have any effect on value. The size of paper on which maps were produced was almost standard and was conditioned by the size of the trays used in paper making - 28 x 24 ins.- and by the size of the presses available.

In the early days of paper-making, hand-made paper was produced almost entirety from linen and rags pulped in water. After thorough mixing, a close meshed wire tray was dipped into the pulp and sufficient lifted out to give the required thickness of paper. The water was drained off, the sheet subsequently dried between layers of felt and then hung to dry. The wire mesh of the tray produced the vertical and horizontal lines apparent on holding the paper up to the light.

The industrial revolution, brought with it great advances in paper making.

For more detailed information, please see :-

American Museum of Papermaking

SOME CARTOGRAPHIC TERMS

• SIZES

• FOLIO - THE OVERALL PAPER SIZE WILL BE AROUND 25x20 INCHES (650x500mm)

• QUARTO [4to] - AN OVERALL SIZE OF ABOUT 13x10 inches (320x250mm). (Roughly equivalent to a modern normal A4 letter heading size)

• OCTAVO [8vo] - THE OVERALL SIZE IS some 7x5 inches (180x125mm)

• DATES - Dates stated are those when the item was actually published/printed. I NEVER offer modern date reproductions.
  Please note that dates shown in square brackets, e.g. [1830] are approximate or circa.

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• ARTIST - The Latin abbreviation 'del', or ' delin' means that the original was DRAWN by.

  CARTOGRAPHER - A map maker or geographer.

  CARTOUCHE - The decorative design, usually surrounding the Title Panel. See further example.

  ENGRAVER - A specialist who transferred the artist's drawing onto the 'plate'. The Latin words 'sculp', or 'sculspit' may proceed his name.

  FOXING - A light brown speck or spot which appears on some old maps or prints. Due to aging, and caused by a fungus. Easily cleaned, but cleaning is usually best left to a professional. NEVER attempt to clean a map or engraving which has original colouring.

  LAID DOWN - This process is usually used to protect a damaged map. Great care should be exercised before buying any laid down item. The map or print has been stuck or glued down on to card or other suitable backing.

  PLATE - The wood, copper, steel or lithographic base used to engrave the image. On many prints and marks the 'Plate Mark' is clearly visible. A small indentation in the paper, a few inches inside the outer extremities of the paper. This occurred when the printing 'pressed' the plate onto the paper.

  VIGNETTE - please see our FEATURE PAGE which contains several scanned images of Vignette Views. Some maps contain small vignettes, Particularly those by John TALLIS.

  WATERMARK - A normally invisible emblem and/or date incorporated into the paper when it was made. Held up to the light, the watermark is normally visible. Not all early paper was produced with a watermark.
   

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LITHOGRAPHY (Surface printing) - introduced c. 1880. Although this process was invented at the end of the 18th century, it did not see common use until the latter part of the 19th century, when it was adapted to mechanisation. The design was drawn on to a flat stone surface, using a greasy ink, which was then 'fixed' chemically.

PAPER: The paper used by the Illustrated London News and other papers of the day, was a wood pulp made using one the numerous chemical processes first developed around 1800. Early issues used unglazed papers, whilst later ones had a much smoother glazed surface, which presented the illustrations in a finer way.

Typical weights of papers, in grams per square metre [gsm], used in the period 1845-1865 70 gsm. 1865-1875 90 gsm. 1875-1902 100 gsm.

The survival over time of the pages from this famous magazine demonstrates they were of higher quality than paper used in most of today's periodicals! Although there can be a tendency for the text printed on the back of some prints to show through, or bleed, to the print occasionally, this rarely detracts. Any marked 'bleed' is noted on my Ebay offers. (I normally do not offer any prints affected to a material extent).

The GRAPHIC: The ILN held a commanding position in the market place. It was seriously challenged by The GRAPHIC in 1870. Although it never reached the circulation of the ILN, it did take a good market share until the turn of the century. Compared with the ILN, prints from The Graphic are not that easy to find.

The ILLUSTRATED TIMES: This periodical was another challenger to the supremacy of the ILN in the 1850s. It's life was barely a decade. Prints from The Illustrated Times are fairly hard to come by.

The ILLUSTRATED SPORTING & DRAMATIC NEWS: The ISDN set out for a niche market, specialising as it did, in Theatre and Sports. In the 1870s and 1880s it enjoyed some popularity. Today, its pages are quite scarce and not commonly available. I am fortunate in having gathered a modest stock over the years.

Mr Herbert INGRAM - Founder of the ILN.

Click the link for more specialised & detailed information about WOOD ENGRAVING